FINAL EXAMINATION QU.1,2,3
ED 4236/1120
INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING AND THE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
FINAL EXAMINATION
QUESTION 1.
Good teachers have been studied ever since Plato described how Socrates taught by asking questions of his audience. Recent findings shed light on two characteristics of good teachers: their personality and their ability.
So what does make a good teacher? In this entry I will list and evaluate in order of importance the qualities I would like to have as a teacher. It is my belief that these qualities act in conversation. There is also a pedagogical law at work; that is, each attribute provides a foundation stone for further professional and personal qualities to development.
At the very base and heart of a good/great/expert teacher you must be able to locate the qualities of uprightness, initiative, truthfulness and devotion.
In this light, I view teaching as a vocation.
UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS AND HOW THEY LEARN/ MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO LEARN
I teach in a Rudolf Steiner School where we as teachers strive to recognize the individuality of each child and aim to create a physical, social and spiritual environment in which that individuality can unfold with confidence. By understanding human development and its spiritual origins, and bringing to the child only content and processes that reflect and stimulate this development,
we have the potential to create a deep love of learning that will last a lifetime. It must be remembered that we teach students, not subjects. Jean Piaget conducted a program of naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of child development. Up until this time children were regarded as little adults.
Piaget asked 'how does knowledge grow?' He attempted to make sense of the unfolding child and linked varying stages of development with differing cognitive levels.
DEEP KNOWLEDGE OF SUBJECT MATTER
A teacher must have a deep knowledge and command of their subject matter. This knowledge must be integrated and have been rehearsed and encoded for a more spontaneous retrieval, thus allowing the teacher to become both responsive and engaging to the students.
The teacher thus becomes a conduit of contagious enquiry and is able to awaken the greatest interest in the students. In a wider sense, by allowing the spirit to permeate the whole being of the teacher, he or she activates the connection point for their students, in a knowledge rich environment where deep learning can occur. The work of John Hattie informs us that this will only be possible if a teacher has deep representations of their subject matter.
INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING / CREATING SAFE, PRODUCTIVE AND WELL-MANAGED CLASSROOMS
Now it is most important for the teacher to be able to guide learning through a variety of different classroom interactions and experiences. . The constructivist model provides proximate opportunities that support social interaction, including teamwork. As Lev Vygotsky’s research informs us, social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. If we are to enter what Vygotsky described as the Zone Of Proximal Development (ZDP), we must interact as social beings.
This will only occur if the teacher is able to truly understand human development and bring to the child forces and content that awaken and meet his faculties at just the right moment. A major theme in the theoretical framework of Jerome Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. Bruner claimed that the task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. If the teacher is able to meet the students with well-prepared lessons, deep learning can occur. Here the teacher plans and anticipates, including contingencies that are dependent on student performance. The teacher must be skilful in keeping the lesson on track and accomplishing their objectives, while also allowing students’ questions and comments as springboards for discussions. I want to be a teacher who provides a dynamic classroom environment that promotes a balance between content-centered and student-centered instruction. When I asked my students for their views on what made a good teacher, second to understanding came the desire for the teacher to create and sustain a healthy academic atmosphere by emphasizing punctuality, protocols, attendance and respect for teachers and other students.
KNOWLEDGE OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION/ COMMITMENT TO LIFELONG LEARNING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
To be able to apply a systematic evaluation of students, a sound knowledge of child development is once again required. Teachers must be familiar with their legal obligations with regard to the Board of Studies, but this should not exclusively inform their feedback to students…remembering that imagination is not a B.O.S outcome! Rudolf Steiner wrote that "The need for imagination, a sense of truth and a feeling of responsibility – these are the three forces which are the very nerve of education." Monitoring and feedback help students develop faculties by promoting a reflective mindset.
Teachers must be able to monitor student problems and assess their level of understanding and progress. They must provide relevant and useful feedback. A teacher must also be able to monitor and evaluate their own efforts in be a process of continual growth and renewal. Critical reflection on practice is essential. Creativity begins and ends with critical reflection on current practices. Here creativity links ideas and practices in new ways. In the words of Jean Piaget
“The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done - men who are creative, inventive and discoverers.”
It is here that collegiality is essential, promoting a healthy community that is supportive and inclusive. I value colleagues who have become ‘shouldering partners’-someone to bounce new ideas off and provide objective feedback. In this way we must strive to become action research practitioners by legitimizing each time we make a quality improvement and also be prepared to change tact when something is not working. Rudolf Steiner, in his ‘Practical Advice to Teachers’ 1919, challenged teachers to ‘cherish a mood of soul, which is fresh and healthy! No getting stale and sour! This must be the teacher’s endeavor.’
UNDERSTANDING AND APPRECIATING DIVERSITY/CREATING A HEALTHY COMMUNITY
A creative community/classroom should be a place where each individual feels they belong and wants to be.
Howard Gardener stressed that all members have multiple intelligences. He believed that we are working with the wrong paradigm when we endeavor to find out how smart people are. Instead Gardener says we should be asking how people are smart. What is their medium for communicating their intelligence? With depth and understanding of child development it is possible to see all children as unique individuals. As no two flowers will unfold at the same rate, nor should any child be expected to ‘bloom on demand’. In my ideal classroom all students would be validated and appreciated. Like the individual stamen that unites to create a waratah, each individual is a valuable member of the whole.
9. PROMOTING STRONG HOME-SCHOOL COMMUNITY RELATIONS
When life flows, and community is created, there is room for everyone to contribute. A healthily home/ school relationship can only add to a dynamic and happy environment that improves student outcomes. I have found that even when a parent has been called in to discuss a ‘problem’ regarding their child, this is always a catalyst for positive change. I believe this is because the nature of the human condition is that it desires to be understood. By meeting together with the correct impulse, teachers and parents can gain deep insight into the student’s condition; by combining observation and bringing judgment and clarity we inevitably arrive at solutions and pathways forward.
These are some of the reasons I love teaching. It’s a relatively thankless and undervalued job by today’s vocational standards, but inwardly it provides rewards that defy description. A deep love of children, a yearning to understand their development and a passion for teaching, these qualities are at the heart of what I hold dear. I will conclude with the following words from Rudolf Steiner, whose summation echoes these sentiments:
"Our highest endeavor must be to develop individuals who are able out of their own initiative to impart purpose and direction to their lives"
FINAL EXAMINATION
QUESTION2
The Constructivist Theory of Education is based on the premise that learning occurs through an attempt to accommodate the complementarity between individual construction and social interaction. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is considered to be one of the chief theorists among the personal (cognitive) constructionists, while Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) is the major theorist among the social constructionists. In this blog entry I will attempt to explain how the theories of these two seemingly divergent Constructivists compliment each other and provide the underpinning for the Constructivist Theory of Education today.
What is Constructivism?
Constructivists view learning as an active process in which the learners actively construct knowledge as they try to comprehend their worlds.
Each of us generates our own mental models or schemas through which we make sense of our experiences. These mental models are constructed by our prior knowledge, current mental structures and existing beliefs. Learning is simply the adjusting of our mental models to accommodate new experiences. The basic premise is that an individual learner must actively "build" knowledge and skills and that information exists within these built constructs rather than in the external environment. However, all advocates of constructivism agree that it is the individual's processing of stimuli from the environment and the resulting cognitive structures that produce adaptive behavior rather than the stimuli themselves.
Educational Constructivism can be divided into personal and social constructivism. In personal constructivism it is the individual person doing constructing or the processing of cognitive and memory structures. Here we find the theories of Piaget and those he influenced (Chomsky, Geselle and Rousseau). Learning is student centered and the teacher’s role is to provide an environment in which the individual learner can develop in set stages. This type of learning requires the teacher to push students beyond the limits to where knowledge is a ‘natural’ product of development, implying a single and natural course. It is the model of education that typifies most classrooms today. Social constructivism involves a group doing the constructing. The theories of Vygotsky and his followers (Rogoff, Bruner and Hillocks) are of importance in describing these learning procedures. Here the student is an active participant in the construction of knowledge. All knowledge is said to be socially and culturally constructed. What and how the student learns depends on what opportunities the teacher/parent provides. Learning is not ‘natural’ but depends on interactions with more expert others. The teacher’s role is to observe learners closely, as individuals and groups. The ideal here is to create an environment of self-initiated enquiry.
If we are to further explore the models of teaching and learning that have been influenced by these two constructivist theorists, we must now consider an overview of the development of their theoretical framework.
The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).
A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.
Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech".
Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, this behavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react to the gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, the pointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.
The principles of Vygotsky’s theory could be stated as follows: Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age; and full cognitive development requires social interaction.
Now we must consider the work of Jean Piaget. Over a period of six decades, Piaget conducted a program of naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of child development. Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget had a background in both Biology and Philosophy and concepts from both these disciplines influences his theories and research of child development.
The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development. There are four primary cognitive structures (i.e., development stages) according to Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperation period (3-7 years) is intuitive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions.
Cognitive structures change through the processes of adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves the interpretation of events in terms of existing cognitive structure whereas accommodation refers to changing the cognitive structure to make sense of the environment. Cognitive development consists of a constant effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget's theory is similar in nature to Vygotsky.
While the stages of cognitive development identified by Piaget are associated with characteristic age spans, they vary for every individual. Furthermore, each stage has many detailed structural forms. For example, the concrete operational period has more than forty distinct structures covering classification and relations, spatial relationships, time, movement, chance, number, conservation and measurement.
Piaget explored the implications of his theory to all aspects of cognition, intelligence and moral development. Many of Piaget's experiments were focused on the development of mathematical and logical concepts. The theory has been applied extensively to teaching practice and curriculum design in elementary education (e.g., Bybee & Sund, 1982; Wadsworth, 1978). Piaget's ideas have been very influential on others, such as Seymour Papert’s groundbreaking work in using computers to teach children.
Applying Piaget's theory results in specific recommendations for a given stage of cognitive development. For example, with children in the sensorimotor stage, teachers should try to provide a rich and stimulating environment with ample objects to play with. On the other hand, with children in the concrete operational stage, learning activities should involve problems of classification, ordering, location, and conservation using concrete objects.
The principles of Piaget’s theories could thus be encapsulated as follows; 1.Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development; 2.Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accommodation); 3.Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities; and 4.Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.
Much has been written on the theoretical differences between the two constructivists. Piaget sees the individual as the source of learning, and that children learn by continuous interaction and experience with their environment, in contrast to Vygotsky who emphasizes that one cannot learn without the verbal interaction and activity with others. According to Vejleskov (1998, p. 117), some have suggested to build a bridge between the two, by naming their combined theories ‘Co-Constructivism,’ as both have different views that in isolation are incomplete. Furthermore Vejleskov quotes Bruner for, at a Piaget-Vygotsky congress in
1996, having said that Piaget owes us an explanation of how the self-regulation is taking place and Vygotsky owes us an explanation to why we do not all become a copy of the socio-cultural
context in which we grow up. Another pair of authors who describe the difference between
Vygotsky and Piaget are Cole and Wertsch who argue that:
For Vygotsky, like Piaget, the relationship between the individual and the social is necessarily relational. However, by placing cultural mediation at the center of adult cognition and the process of cognitive development, social origins take on a special importance in Vygotsky’s theories that is less symmetrical than Piaget’s notion of social equilibration as ‘resulting from the interplay of the operations that enter into all cooperation’. For Vygotsky and cultural-historical theorists more generally, the social world does have primacy over the individual in a very special sense. Society is the bearer of the cultural heritage without which the development of mind is impossible.
(Cole & Wertsch, 1996)
The difference between Piaget and Vygotsky are thus not that one puts an emphasis on the individual side and the other on the social side, but instead that one, Piaget, seem to balance the two aspects more equally than the other. Also in the Vygotskian School, knowledge comes from the outside, as a transition, whereas Piaget talks about man’s innate capability of learning. This has resemblances with the ancient philosophical debate about the brain. This is a debate about whether we as humans are born with a blank slate or we are born with certain capabilities, or somewhere in between. A conclusion is thus that a synthesis of their theories seems less difficult to create, as they do not necessarily have a different ontological basis. From the “tone” between Piaget and Vygotsky, their critique of each other never seemed personal, but was carried by mutual respect and, probably, driven by a desire for finding the truth.
So how can these two seemingly divergent paths underpin the contemporary model of Constructivist Education today? In the 20th century, Piaget’s developed theory on childhood development and education, what we now call Progressive Education that has led to the evolution of the foundation of Constructivism in Education. Vygotsky introduced the social aspect of learning and the ZPD. This has become highly relevant and of the greatest importance, as 21st century education is transforming into a culture that is inclusive of a ‘community of learners’. Communities of practice attempt to create meaning and solve problems in a real context.
The community of learners instructional model supersedes the pendulum entirely: it is not a compromise or a ‘balance’ of the adult-run and children-run models. Its theoretical notion is that learning is a process of transformation of participation in which both adults and children contribute support and direction in shared endeavors.
In this new model we can see the work of both Piaget and Vygotsky as laying the foundation for what we may call Constructivism in Education Today.
References:
http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html
Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.
http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html
Brainerd, C. (1978). Piaget's Theory of Intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bybee, R.W. & Sund, R.B. (1982). Piaget for Educators (2nd Ed). Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill.
Flavell, J. H. (1963). The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Gallagher, J.M. & Reid, D.K. (1981). The Learning Theory of Piaget and Inhelder. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Piaget, J. (1929). The Child's Conception of the World. NY: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.
Piaget, J. (1932). The Moral Judgement of the Child. NY: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.
Piaget, J. (1969). The Mechanisms of Perception. London: Rutledge & Kegan Paul.
Paiget, J. (1970). The Science of Education amd the Psychology of the Child. NY: Grossman.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the Child. NY: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1973). Memory and intelligence. NY: Basic Books.
Wadsworth, B. (1978). Piaget for the Classroom Teacher. NY: Longman.
Rogoff .B., Matusov, B., and White,S (1996). Models of Teaching and Learning: Participation in a Community of Learners . In D. Olson and N. Torrance (eds.), The Handbook of Cognitive and Human Development. Oxford,UK:, Blackwell, 388-414.
A Synthesis of Different Psychological Learning Theories- Piaget/Vygotsky, by Bettina Dahl
FINAL EXAMINATION
QUESTION 3.
BOARD OF STUDIES SYLLABUS DOCUMENTS
Scope and Sequence
The outcomes and standards of the Board of Studies provide a clear direction for the development of understanding from K -12 in each of the Key Learning Areas. However the means of arriving at these standards can be varied.
Schools are able to design their curriculum to suit their own contexts, recognising the needs of their students, teachers and community and the resources they have available.
Scope and sequence is vital in whole school planning and in the planning of learning sequences. Scope includes decisions about what is significant and manageable. Sequence includes decisions about what is necessary for sequential development of both skills and concepts.
The overall school planning document should make connections across areas of the curriculum, highlighting concepts and key questions from the Key Learning Areas
Teaching Programme
The teaching programme provides the framework of required knowledge for any given subject. The teacher uses the information in the learning programme to as a guideline to construct lessons. Teaching programs are most effective when they occur within a well-planned, long-term framework. Effective planning helps schools and educators become more focused and intentional in their work. It enables the provision of richer learning opportunities, greater balance in the curriculum and improved use of resources. Planning affects all aspects of school life and is a shared enterprise involving teachers, students, parents and the community. Planning can enhance student learning experiences and lead to improved student learning outcomes.
The teaching programme provides the framework of required knowledge for any given subject. The teacher uses the information in the learning programme to as a guideline to construct lessons.
Assessing
Assessing is the process of acquiring information and making judgements about students’ learning. The purpose of assessment is to:
* assist student learning related to outcomes
* make judgements about students’ achievements
* evaluate the effectiveness of teaching programs
* inform decisions about students’ future learning
BOS Syllabus documents offer guidelines for assessment within a subject. This is done in order to ensure that students are assessed in a fair and objective way. Teachers are able to create their own assessment programme using the suggested assessment strategies if required or developing tasks more specific to the needs of their students. School Certificate and Higher School Certificate, (stages 5and 6 ) involve a combination of internal and external assessment. All care must be taken to ensure that students have met all course requirements.
It is the responsibility of the teacher to remain informed of course requirements, course outcomes, syllabus document updates and planning changes.
With the recent release of the new BOS documents, teachers have been able to further refine their determination of what is being taught, in what scope and sequence and at what stage. There are clear guidelines and descriptions of assessment which aide teachers to plan and reflect upon their lessons. The BOS syllabus document is an essential reference which aides teachers in determining what is taught.
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Margaret Wheatley writes, teaches, and speaks about radically new practices and ideas for organizing in chaotic times. She works to create organizations of all types where people are known as the blessing, not the problem. She is president of The Berkana Institute, a charitable global foundation serving life-affirming leaders around the world, and was an organizational consultant for many years, as well as a professor of management in two graduate programs. Her work appears in three award-winning books--"Leadership and the New Science," "A Simpler Way" (coauthored with Myron Rogers), and "Turning to One Another: Simple Conversations to Restore Hope to the Future"-- plus several videos and articles. Her newest book is "Finding Our Way: Leadership for an Uncertain Time." (4/2005)
