DAVID P AUSUBEL

Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.


A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers:

"These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 , p. 81).

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Advaned Organizers

The "advanced organizer" approach to teaching is a cognitive instructional strategy used to promote the learning and retention of new information. Proposed by David Ausubel in 1960, this strategy is one of the most utilized methods of instruction in our schools today.

In the development of this approach Ausubel (1960) promoted meaningful learning upholding that the most important thing a child could bring to learning situation was what s/he already knows. Therefore, meaningful learning results when that child consciously and explicitly ties new knowledge to relevant concepts within his/her schema. When this occurs it produces a series of changes within our entire cognitive structure. Existing concepts are modified and new linkages between concepts are formed.

Ausubel (1960) believed that meaningful learning is idiosyncratic and involves personal recognition of the links between concepts. The most important element of meaningful learning is not so much how information (rote vs. discovery) is presented but how new information is integrated into an existing knowledge base.

In order to enhance meaningful learning Ausubel believed that it was important to have students preview information to be learned. Teachers could do this by providing a brief introduction about the way that information that is going to be presented is structured. An example of this might be opening a lesson with a statement that provides an overview of what will be taught. In presenting outlines of information, teachers can help students see the big picture to be learned. This approach encourages students to build upon prior knowledge and mentally organize their thoughts before being introduced to the details of new concepts.

By making new material more familiar and meaningful to students, it should be easier to retrieve. (Gagne, 1988)

Ausubel documented these ideas in his book The Acquisition and Retention of Knowledge. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. This shows the connection between new learning material and related conceptual material that the learner already knows, and how it can be more easily stabilized and assimilated into the learner’s cognitive structure thereby becoming more resistant to forgetting.

References:-
http://www.davidausubel.org/newProjects.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ausubel
http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html
http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/AdvancedOrganizers.htm

JIGSAW METHOD

History of the Jigsaw
An Account from Professor Aronson

The jigsaw classroom was first used in 1971 in Austin, Texas. My graduate students and I had invented the jigsaw strategy that year, as a matter of absolute necessity to help defuse an explosive situation. The city's schools had recently been desegregated, and because Austin had always been racially segregated, white youngsters, African-American youngsters, and Hispanic youngsters found themselves in the same classrooms for the first time.

Within a few weeks, long-standing suspicion, fear, and distrust between groups produced an atmosphere of turmoil and hostility. Fist-fights erupted in corridors and schoolyards across the city. The school superintendent called me in to see if we could do anything to help students get along with one another. After observing what was going on in classrooms for a few days, my students and I concluded that inter-group hostility was being fueled by the competitive environment of the classroom.




Jigsaw in 10 Easy Steps

The jigsaw classrom is very simple to use. If you're a teacher, just follow these steps:

1. Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups. The groups should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability.

2. Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most mature student in the group.

3. Divide the day's lesson into 5-6 segments. For example, if you want history students to learn about Eleanor Roosevelt, you might divide a short biography of her into stand-alone segments on: (1) Her childhood, (2) Her family life with Franklin and their children, (3) Her life after Franklin contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady, and (5) Her life and work after Franklin's death.

4. Assign each student to learn one segment, making sure students have direct access only to their own segment.

5. Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and become familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it.

6. Form temporary "expert groups" by having one student from each jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give students in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group.

7. Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.

8. Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.

9. Float from group to group, observing the process. If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.

10. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.



Content Copyright 2000-2007, Elliot Aronson
Web Site Copyright 2000-2007, Social Psychology Network

WHAT MAKES A GOOD LESSON

What makes a good lesson?

NOTRE DAME TASK

Group work using jigsaw model

1. Form into 6 member groups
2. Allocate a common task
3. Each student in each group is given a topic
A) Gagne’s events of instruction
B) Merrill’s first principles of instruction
C) Specifying intentions for a lesson- Ausubel
D) Taxonomies- Bloom, SOLO
E) Objectives using Gronlund’s approach
F) Catering for diversity- Gardner

4.Gather information on one’s own for 20-30 minutes

5. Experts on each topic meet to discuss and study the topic further.

6. Experts now return to their original groups and teach the other members about the Topic they have studied.

It would be good to use technology so that all of the information can be captured for the group.

Each group sets up a new blog and puts all the information they have gathered onto it.

CURRENT TRENDS IN SCHOOLING IN AUSTRALIA

The Adelaide Declaration established national goals for Australian schooling in the 21st Century. The model established by MCEETYA in 1999, is the current document upon which State generated its own framework for learning in schools.
Until recently Queensland was leading the way with their productive pedagogy model based on:-
Problem Based Learning-(Constructivist model)
Higher Order Thinking-(Bloom’s Taxonomy)
Deep Learning- (Critical Reflection)

In N.S.W document development for K-12 is managed by the Board of Studies which became a separate entity from the department of Education.
In NSW this new direction was set down in the document titled “Quality Teaching.”
(i) Pedagogy that promotes high levels of intellectual quality
(ii) Pedagogy that establishes a higher quality learning environment
(iii) Pedagogy that generates significance by connecting students with the intellectual demand of their work.
This approach is based on socio-cultural perspectives that recognize that children are active participants-
(Constructivist Learning)

THE ADELAIDE DECLARATION

The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century

Goals
1. Schooling should develop fully the talents and capacities of all students. In particular, when students leave school, they should:
1.1 have the capacity for, and skills in, analysis and problem solving and the ability to communicate ideas and information, to plan and organise activities, and to collaborate with others.
1.2 have qualities of self-confidence, optimism, high self-esteem, and a commitment to personal excellence as a basis for their potential life roles as family, community and workforce members.
1.3 have the capacity to exercise judgement and responsibility in matters of morality, ethics and social justice, and the capacity to make sense of their world, to think about how things got to be the way they are, to make rational and informed decisions about their own lives, and to accept responsibility for their own actions.
1.4 be active and informed citizens with an understanding and appreciation of Australia’s system of government and civic life.
1.5 have employment related skills and an understanding of the work environment, career options and pathways as a foundation for, and positive attitudes towards, vocational education and training, further education, employment and life-long learning.
1.6 be confident, creative and productive users of new technologies, particularly information and communication technologies, and understand the impact of those technologies on society.
1.7 have an understanding of, and concern for, stewardship of the natural environment, and the knowledge and skills to contribute to ecologically sustainable development.
1.8 have the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to establish and maintain a healthy lifestyle, and for the creative and satisfying use of leisure time.

2. In terms of curriculum, students should have:
2.1 attained high standards of knowledge, skills and understanding through a comprehensive and balanced curriculum in the compulsory years of schooling encompassing the agreed eight key learning areas:

* the arts;
* English;
* health and physical education;
* languages other than English;
* mathematics;
* science;
* studies of society and environment; and
* technology.

and the interrelationships between them.
2.2 attained the skills of numeracy and English literacy; such that, every student should be numerate, able to read, write, spell and communicate at an appropriate level.
2.3 participated in programs of vocational learning during the compulsory years and have had access to vocational education and training programs as part of their senior secondary studies.
2.4 participated in programs and activities which foster and develop enterprise skills, including those skills which will allow them maximum flexibility and adaptability in the future.

3. Schooling should be socially just, so that:
3.1 students’ outcomes from schooling are free from the effects of negative forms of discrimination based on sex, language, culture and ethnicity, religion or disability; and of differences arising from students’ socio-economic background or geographic location.
3.2 the learning outcomes of educationally disadvantaged students improve and, over time, match those of other students.
3.3 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have equitable access to, and opportunities in, schooling so that their learning outcomes improve and, over time, match those of other students.
3.4 all students understand and acknowledge the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures to Australian society and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
3.5 all students understand and acknowledge the value of cultural and linguistic diversity, and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, such diversity in the Australian community and internationally.
3.6 all students have access to the high quality education necessary to enable the completion of school education to Year 12 or its vocational equivalent and that provides clear and recognised pathways to employment and further education and training.

Reference-
http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/school_education/policy_initiatives_reviews/national_goals_for_schooling_in_the_twenty_first_century.htm
Date retrieved-10th February 2007